ESSENTIALS OF Practice-Based Coaching

Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood

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Praise for

Praise for

Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching “For too long the early care and education field has sidelined the importance of early childhood educators’ competent practice. Given the expanding knowledge base about children’s early learning and

educators’ competent practice. Given the expanding knowledge base about children’s early learning and the exponential growth of professional development opportunities, this book could not be more timely.”

the exponential growth of professional development opportunities, this book could not be more timely.” —Stacie G. Goffin, Ed.D., Principal, Goffin Strategy Group, LLC, and author of Early Childhood

Education For A New Era: Leading For Our Profession “Written by the premier experts on the subject, this book is a must-have for anyone using or supporting practice-based coaching in early childhood settings. Filled with countless tips and strategies, this book will be an incredibly useful tool for both new and experienced practice-based

strategies, this book will be an incredibly useful tool for both new and experienced practice-based coaches—and everyone in between.” —Rob Corso, Ph.D., Senior Researcher,

—Rob Corso, Ph.D., Senior Researcher, Vanderbilt University “What a gift! Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox provide us with a thorough grounding in the theory and research undergirding practice-based coaching. Then, they offer practical steps and guides for implementing the approach. This is an indispensable resource for understanding and implementing

implementing the approach. This is an indispensable resource for understanding and implementing practice-based coaching.” —Susan R. Sandall, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus,

—Susan R. Sandall, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, University of Washington “A thorough description of effective supports for promoting best practices with infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. The coaching model is compelling, and the case examples and

toddlers, and preschoolers. The coaching model is compelling, and the case examples and implementation resources are especially rich.” —Douglas R. Powell, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor Emeritus,

—Douglas R. Powell, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Purdue University “A thoroughly researched and thoughtfully designed description of practice-based coaching that integrates evidence and recommended practice with the implementation strategies and procedures for early childhood educators to apply the model in their programs. The book capitalizes on the authors’ excellence in research and extensive experience in professional development and coaching to produce

of practice-based coaching. This book will be used as the ‘gold standard’ for implementing evidenced-based coaching in early childhood classrooms.” —Barbara A. Wasik, Ph.D., PNC Endowed Chair in Early Childhood Education,

Communication and Early Childhood Research and Practice Center, Florida State University “An essential book on one of the most important education and policy issues of our time—supporting teacher quality through coaching. Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox, internationally renowned experts in coaching, artfully and clearly synthesize the empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of practice-based coaching. This book will be used as the ‘gold standard’ for implementing

excellence in research and extensive experience in professional development and coaching to produce a highly readable guide with accompanying field-tested resources ready for use.”

—Barbara A. Wasik, Ph.D., PNC Endowed Chair in Early Childhood Education, College of Education and Human Development, Temple University “The quintessential resource for new and experienced coaches alike. Readers will appreciate the authors’ detailing of the theoretical foundations and professional applications of practice-based coaching.” —Alexandra Stoerger, University of Miami,

a highly readable guide with accompanying field-tested resources ready for use.” —Juliann J. Woods, Ph.D., SLP-CCC, Professor Emeritus, School of Communication Science and Disorders, Communication and Early Childhood Research and

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“The authoritative, must-have resource for optimal implementation [of practice-based coaching]. The editors and contributors of this practical volume have provided a valuable guide, packed with tools

The editors and contributors of this practical volume have provided a valuable guide, packed with tools and tips, that I will recommend to every team involved with young children’s care and education.”

—Glen Dunlap, Ph.D., University of Nevada, Reno “Each chapter is rich with concrete examples that clearly illustrate how practice-based coaching works in real-life settings. This book is a real treasure for anyone who is engaged in supporting teachers in

in real-life settings. This book is a real treasure for anyone who is engaged in supporting teachers in the implementation of practices that promote children’s early learning and development.” —Judith J. Carta, Ph.D., Senior Scientist and Professor, Institute for Life-Span Studies/Department of Special Education,

Institute for Life-Span Studies/Department of Special Education, University of Kansas “This book provides a roadmap for anyone considering coaching and should be used by all teams in planning and implementing their professional development programs. Implementation is ‘ready-made’ with the sample forms and tools, including agendas, logs, checklists, and schedules

‘ready-made’ with the sample forms and tools, including agendas, logs, checklists, and schedules providing helpful organizational aids for new and experienced coaches.”

—Patty Salcedo, M.A., Desired Results Access Project (California) “A comprehensive text that walks readers through the research that informs practice-based coaching to

“A comprehensive text that walks readers through the research that informs practice-based coaching to the practical implications and how to do it with fidelity.” —Michaelene M. Ostrosky, Ph.D., Grayce Wicall Gauthier Professor of Education,

Department of Special Education, College of Education, University of Illinois “A step-by-step guide, practical tips, and easy-to-use templates that coaches can use to implement practice-based coaching with fidelity. The concepts presented in this book are grounded in theory, science, and real-life practice. This book is a must for all professionals seeking

grounded in theory, science, and real-life practice. This book is a must for all professionals seeking to coach teachers or parents.”

University of Miami; PI, Step Up Assistive Technology Project, Mailman Center for Child Development University of Miami “Practice-based coaching is the finishing process wherein practitioners can become expert purveyors of early intervention and early childhood special education services with the results

—Therese Snyder, M.A., Desired Results Access Project (California) “A valuable tool for anyone whose role involves supporting early education providers in the implementation of teaching practices. This book is the definitive guide to PBC implementation and an essential tool for making measurable improvements in practitioner or caregivers’ implementation of

purveyors of early intervention and early childhood special education services with the results children and families desire.” —Charles R. Greenwood, Ph.D., Senior Scientist, Institute for Life Span Studies, Juniper Gardens Children’s Project,

University of Kansas “This rich and robust package of PBC research, the coaching framework, and implementation

practices, and it fully supports early childhood practitioners to continue to enhance their knowledge, skills, and dispositions in a collaborative coaching partnership!”

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Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood

by

by Patricia Snyder, Ph.D. Distinguished Professor and David Lawrence Jr. Endowed Chair University of Florida

Gainesville Mary Louise Hemmeter, Ph.D. Professor, Vanderbilt University

Nashville, Tennessee

and Lise Fox, Ph.D. Professor, University of South Florida

Baltimore·London·Sydney

Tampa

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

All examples in this book are composites. Any similarity to actual individuals or circumstances is coincidental, and no implications should be inferred. Purchasers of Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching: Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood are granted permission to download, print, and photocopy appendices in the text for professional purposes. These forms may not be reproduced to generate revenue for any program or individual. Photocopies may only be made

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Snyder, Patricia, 1955 July 13- author. | Hemmeter, Mary Louise, author. | Fox, Lise, author.
Title: Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching: Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood/by Patricia Snyder, Mary Louise Hemmeter and Lise Fox ; with invited contributors.
Description: Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021023523 (print) | LCCN 2021023524 (ebook) | ISBN 9781681253817 (paperback) | ISBN 9781681253824 (epub) | ISBN 9781681253831 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Early childhood teachers—Training of. | Early childhood teachers—In-service training. | Mentoring in education. | Employees—Coaching of. | BISAC: EDUCATION / Professional Development | EDUCATION / Teacher Training & Certification Classification: LCC LB1775.6 .S68 2022 (print) | LCC LB1775.6 (ebook) | DDC 372.21—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021023523 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021023524

Contents

About the Downloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . About the Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 1 Overview of Practice-Based Coaching: Theoretical, Empirical, and Practice-Based Rationales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patricia Snyder, Mary Louise Hemmeter, and Lise Fox Chapter 2 Introduction to the Practice-Based Coaching Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patricia Snyder, Mary Louise Hemmeter, Lise Fox, and Crystal Bishop Chapter 3 Establishing and Maintaining a Collaborative Partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kathleen Artman-Meeker, Kiersten A. Kinder, and Mary Louise Hemmeter Chapter 4 Coaching Strategies and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Darbianne Shannon, Crystal Bishop, Patricia Snyder, and Tara McLaughlin Chapter 5 Effective Practices and Strengths and Needs Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Darbianne Shannon, Tara McLaughlin, and Patricia Snyder Chapter 6 Shared Goal Setting and Action Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patricia Snyder, Mary Louise Hemmeter, Lise Fox, and Crystal Bishop Chapter 7 Focused Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jessica K. Hardy, Ragan H. McLeod, and Mary Louise Hemmeter Chapter 8 Reflection and Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna Winneker, Denise Perez Binder, and Lise Fox

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Contents

vi Contents Chapter 9 Considerations for Implementing Practice-Based Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chelsea T. Morris, Meghan von der Embse, Jolenea B. Ferro, and Lise Fox Chapter 10 Using Technology to Support Practice-Based Coaching Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crystal Bishop, Ragan H. McLeod, Kathleen Artman-Meeker, and Mary Louise Hemmeter Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

About the Editors

Patricia Snyder, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor and David Lawrence Jr. Endowed Chair,

Patricia Snyder, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor and David Lawrence Jr. Endowed Chair, University of Florida, Gainesville Dr. Patricia Snyder is the inaugural occupant of the University of Florida’s (UF) David Lawrence Jr. Endowed Chair in Early Childhood Studies. She is a UF Distinguished Professor of Special Education and Early Childhood Studies and an affiliate professor of pediatrics. She is the founding director of the UF Anita Zucker Center for Excellence in Early Childhood Studies. Dr. Snyder has worked for more than four decades in community-based and academic settings with an emphasis on advancing transdisciplinary approaches to practice, research, and policy in early childhood. She has been a direct service provider, an early learning program administrator, and a faculty member, researcher, and higher education administrator. She has been actively involved at local, state, and national levels in early childhood systems development and integration, including serving as a gubernatorial appointee to the Children’s Trust of Alachua County. Dr. Snyder served as the editor of the Journal of Early Intervention from 2002 to 2007. She has been a principal investigator/co-principal investigator for numerous studies and projects funded by the Institute of Education Sciences and the Office of Special Education Programs. She has authored more than 130 refereed journal articles, book chapters, monographs, and books focused on early intervention and early learning with a particular focus on young children with or at risk for disabilities, their families, and the personnel who support them. Dr. Snyder has received a number of awards for her teaching, service, and research activities. Among these awards are the Division for Early Childhood Mary McEvoy Service to the Field Award, Merle B. Karnes Service to the Division Award, and the DEC Award for Mentoring. Dr. Snyder received the Kauffman- Hallahan-Pullen Distinguished Researcher Award from the Division for Research, Council for Exceptional Children. She and her colleagues have been conducting research on practice-based

Mary Louise Hemmeter, Ph.D., Professor, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee

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X

About the Editors

About the Editors

Lise Fox, Ph.D., Professor, University of South Florida, Tampa Dr. Lise Fox is a professor in the Department of Child and Family Studies at the University of South Florida in Tampa, Florida, and the co-director of the Florida Center for Inclusive Communities: A University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities. Dr. Fox was one of the developers of the Pyramid Model for Promoting the Social Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children and has authored 95 books, book chapters, and articles. She has developed and managed numerous technical assistance, research, model demonstration, and personnel preparation projects in the areas of early childhood special education, state capacity building, implementation of the Pyramid Model, preventing and addressing challenging behavior, and

About the Contributors

Kathleen Artman-Meeker, Ph.D., Associate Professor, University of Washington, Seattle

Kathleen Artman-Meeker, Ph.D., Associate Professor, University of Washington, Seattle Dr. Artman-Meeker is an associate professor of early childhood special education at the University of Washington (UW) and the director of research at the UW Haring Center for Inclusive Education. She maintains an active research agenda and community partnerships focused on professional development for early educators, particularly around young children’s social-emotional development. Dr. Artman-Meeker’s research, teaching, and writing focus on

Crystal Bishop, Ph.D., Assistant Research Scientist, Anita Zucker Center for Excellence in Early

Childhood Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville Dr. Bishop is an assistant research scientist at the University of Florida Anita Zucker Center for Excellence in Early Childhood Studies. Dr. Bishop and her colleagues collaborate to study, develop, and provide evidence-based professional development that supports the use of prac-

Jolenea Ferro, Ph.D., BCBA-Doctoral, Associate Professor, University of South Florida, Tampa

Jolenea Ferro, Ph.D., BCBA-Doctoral, Associate Professor, University of South Florida, Tampa Dr. Ferro is associate professor in the Florida Center for Inclusive Communities: A University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities at the University of South Florida. Her research primarily focuses on individualized interventions and preventing challenging behaviors, addressing all age groups and abilities. Her current focus is on young children. Dr. Ferro provides training and technical assistance to states, program teams, and coaches to support implementation of the Pyramid Model, young children’s social-emotional development, and the

Jessica K. Hardy, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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About the Contributors

xii About the Contributors

Kiersten A. Kinder, Ph.D., Research Associate, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee Dr. Kinder is a research associate at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. She coordinates a variety of research studies focused on the Pyramid Model and practice-based coaching. Dr. Kinder has worked for more than 15 years in public and lab school settings in a variety of roles including associate director, coach, and teacher. Her professional interests include inclusive education, embedded instruction, building collaborative partnerships, and supporting

Tara McLaughlin, Ph.D., Senior Lecturer, Massey University, New Zealand

Tara McLaughlin, Ph.D., Senior Lecturer, Massey University, New Zealand Dr. McLaughlin is a senior lecturer in the Institute of Education at Massey University. Her research interests focus on professional learning and development to support effective teaching, curriculum implementation, assessment and evaluation in early childhood education, and early intervention. Dr. McLaughlin has worked with teachers, children, and families in inclusive learning settings in the United States and in New Zealand. She leads the Massey University

Ragan H. McLeod, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa

Ragan H. McLeod, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Dr. McLeod has coached preservice and in-service teachers to implement effective practices in early childhood classrooms. She currently develops materials and provides training and technical assistance related to practice-based coaching for the Head Start National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning. Dr. McLeod is an assistant professor and coordinator of the early childhood special education program at the University of Alabama. Her research interests include language and literacy interventions for young children and

Chelsea T. Morris, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Faculty Director, University of West Georgia,

Model Innovations, The University of South Florida, Tampa Denise Perez Binder has been on the faculty at the University of South Florida for more than 18 years. She has provided training, technical assistance, and coaching on Pyramid Model practices for several different technical assistance centers. Currently, she is a technical assistance specialist for the National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations and the Early Childhood

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About the Contributors

About the Contributors

xiii

About the Contributors Darbianne Shannon, Ph.D., Assistant Research Scientist, Anita Zucker Center for Excellence

in Early Childhood Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville Dr. Shannon is an assistant research scientist at the University of Florida in the Anita Zucker Center for Excellence in Early Childhood Studies. She has been working in the field of early childhood studies for more than 15 years, teaching in school- and center-based inclusive early childhood programs and providing professional development and coaching to teachers,

coaches, and administrators in public, private, and Head Start settings. Meghan von der Embse, Ed.S., Learning and Development Facilitator, University of South

Meghan von der Embse, Ed.S., Learning and Development Facilitator, University of South Florida, Tampa Meghan von der Embse is a learning and development facilitator with the Florida Center for Inclusive Communities at the University of South Florida and staff member at the National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations. She provides training, technical assistance, and ongoing coaching supports for early childhood programs to build capacity implementing and sustaining Pyramid Model supports. She has practiced as a K–12 school psychologist and behavior specialist, and she has expertise in providing training and technical assistance with multi-tiered

Anna Winneker, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, University of South Florida, Tampa

Anna Winneker, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, University of South Florida, Tampa Dr. Winneker is an assistant professor in the College of Behavioral and Community Sciences at the University of South Florida (USF). She serves as project director of the Program-Wide Positive Behavior Support project at USF. Dr. Winneker has extensive experience working with children, families, and teachers to implement a multi-tiered approach to supporting the socialemotional development of young children. Her focus is on supporting educators to implement

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

We thank our colleagues, current and former students, and the program leaders, training and technical assistance specialists, coaches, practitioners, and families who have supported the development, implementation, and evaluation of practice-based coaching (PBC). Our collaborative and sustained partnerships have informed and strengthened our insights about the essentials of PBC. We look forward to working with existing and future partners to continue to

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Overview of Practice-Based Coaching

Theoretical, Empirical, and Practice-Based Rationales

Patricia Snyder, Mary Louise Hemmeter, and Lise Fox

INTRODUCTION

Practice-Based Coaching (PBC) is an empirically based coaching framework designed to support practitioners’ or caregivers’ implementation of evidence-based or recommended practices that lead to positive developmental and learning outcomes for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers (Snyder et al., 2015). As shown in Figure 1.1, the PBC framework has three key components:

1. shared goals and action planning, 2) focused observation, and 3) reflection and feedback. These components occur in the context of a collaborative coaching partnership, which is focused explicitly on supporting implementation of evidence-based or recommended practices. Each component of PBC and the essential elements needed to implement it as intended, or with fidelity, are the focus of this book. In this chapter, we set the context for the chapters that follow by providing background information about PBC and the theoretical, empirical, and practice-based rationales that support it. The term evidence-based practices refers to effective practices that, when implemented as intended, have been demonstrated through empirical research to support children’s devel- opment and learning. Recommended practices refer to practices that are informed by the best available research evidence, the knowledge and wisdom gained through experiences applying practices in authentic contexts, and the values of an organization or field of practice. Examples of recommended practices are the Division for Early Childhood Recommended Practices in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education (Division for Early Childhood, 2014). Throughout the book, the term effective practices will be used to encompass both types of practices. Chapter 5 provides information about how the term practice is defined within the PBC framework.

BACKGROUND FOR PRACTICE-BASED COACHING

PBC was initially developed, validated, and evaluated for efficacy as part of an Institute of Education Sciences (IES)–funded research project. The project was focused on evaluating the effects of professional development, which included what is now known as PBC, on preschool

Excerpted from The Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching: Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood by Patricia Snyder, Ph.D., Mary Louise Hemmeter, Ph.D., & Lise K. Fox, Ph.D. ©2022 Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

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Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

ative Partners

bor hip lla

s Co

d Fo cu an se s ing d o al n O G an b d Pl se re ion rv ha ct a

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Figure 1.1. Practice-Based Coaching framework.

teachers’ use of embedded instruction practices. This work began in 2007 and continues to the present time (e.g., Snyder, Hemmeter, et al., 2018). PBC was subsequently used in other IES-funded projects conducted by the editors and contributors to this text. In addition to embedded instruction, these projects have included the use of PBC along with workshops and other implementation aids to support practitioners’ use of social, emotional, and behavioral practices reflected in the Pyramid Model (e.g., Hemmeter et al., 2016; Hemmeter et al., 2021). PBC was the coaching framework used as part of the Head Start National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning (Head Start/ECLKC: Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center, n.d.). PBC is recognized as a critical professional develop- ment approach for the implementation of the Pyramid Model (von der Embse et al., 2019). It is also being used to support practitioners’ and caregivers’ implementation of evidence-based practices in early intervention, early childhood special education, and early care and educa- tion contexts (e.g., Fox, 2017; National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations, 2020; Snyder, Woods, et al., 2018). Beyond projects in which contributors to this book have developed, validated, implemented, and evaluated PBC, many professional development providers, faculty in practitioner prepa- ration programs, researchers, training and technical assistance personnel, coaches, program leaders, and practitioners are using PBC. For example, PBC has been used in studies focused on the BEST in CLASS intervention. BEST in CLASS is a Tier 2 intervention designed to address the needs of children (preschool to second grade) who demonstrate persistent and intensive challenging behaviors in classroom settings, which place them at future risk for developing social-emotional learning difficulties (e.g., Conroy et al., 2019). In addition, the most recent Head Start Program Performance Standards require that programs implement a research-based coor- dinated coaching strategy for education staff (Training and Professional Development, 2016). PBC is recognized as a research-based coordinated coaching strategy.

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Overview of PBC

Overview of PBC Given the widespread use of PBC in early childhood settings, we determined that a need existed for a book that contains practical and evidence-informed information on the essentials of PBC. In this book, we provide detailed information about the PBC framework and each component of the framework, case story application examples, and resources to support fidelity of PBC implementation. After spending more than 16 years developing, refining, and evaluating PBC, we are committed to disseminating more widely this research-based coaching approach to support those who coach, those who are being coached, and those who oversee the implementa-

PBC, we are committed to disseminating more widely this research-based coaching approach to support those who coach, those who are being coached, and those who oversee the implementation of professional development, including coaching. Throughout the book, when appropriate, we refer to those who are being coached as coachees and those who are coaching as coaches. Coachees are practitioners in early childhood programs such as early care and education programs; state-funded preschool programs; Early Head Start/Head Start programs; inclusive infant, toddler, and preschool programs; home-visiting programs; and early intervention programs. Coachees can also be caregivers (e.g., parent, grandparent, family care provider). Coaches are individuals with a designated role as a coach or caregiver coach. Coaches can be internal to the program or external to the program as professional development or training and technical assistance

a designated role as a coach or caregiver coach. Coaches can be internal to the program or external to the program as professional development or training and technical assistance providers. Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching provides guidance on the use of PBC and the evaluation of how PBC is being implemented and whether it is being implemented as intended or with fidelity. A focus on implementation fidelity is particularly important for those adopting PBC. Promising findings related to practitioners’ and caregivers’ fidelity of implementation of effective practices following receipt of professional development that includes PBC, and associated positive child outcomes, are unlikely to be realized outside controlled research studies without attention to fidelity. This latter assertion is particularly important given that consensus has not been reached about how coaching should be defined and how components of coaching should be implemented across various early childhood sectors and contexts (Artman-Meeker et al.,

2015; O’Keefe, 2017).

Practice-Based Coaching and Other Coaching Frameworks Several coaching definitions have been offered in early childhood and related literatures, and the number of coaching frameworks or models appears to be growing. This growth is likely the result of multiple reviews and meta-analyses that have highlighted the promise of coaching as a job-embedded professional development strategy in early childhood and Kindergarten through Grade 12 (K–12) contexts (e.g., Artman-Meeker et al., 2015; Kraft et al., 2018; Lloyd

variations exist, commonalities are evident. Comparing the key elements of PBC to the definitions and other frameworks shown in Table 1.1 helps identify the common or distinct elements of PBC. Each definition or framework identifies coaching as a relationship, partnership, or collaboration. In PBC, we distinguish a collaborative partnership from a relationship. A relationship is a broader term used to describe connections, often emotional, between two or more people. In PBC, a collaborative partnership focuses on connections to achieve goals. In PBC, the partnership is formed so the coach can support the coachees’ practice-focused goals. All

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dispositions, and skills in coaching and in the practices that are the focus of fidelity during use in practice contexts tions with teachers to support nance, and generalization of practice

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Overview of PBC

Overview of PBC action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback—occur in the context of a

action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback—occur in the context of a collaborative partnership. Across definitions and frameworks, coaches are identified as individuals with expertise in professional development, coaching, and adult learning principles. In PBC, we include these areas of expertise as well as explicitly acknowledging that coaches need specialized knowledge and skills in the practices that will be the focus of coaching (Snyder et al., 2015). The purposes or desired outcomes of coaching are to build coachees’ capacity, to strengthen their practice-focused competence and confidence, and to support them to implement effective practices with fidelity. In

action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback—occur in the context of a Across definitions and frameworks, coaches are identified as individuals with expertise in professional development, coaching, and adult learning principles. In PBC, we include these areas of expertise as well as explicitly acknowledging that coaches need specialized knowledge and skills in the practices that will be the focus of coaching (Snyder et al., 2015). The purposes or desired outcomes of coaching are to build coachees’ capacity, to strengthen their practice-focused competence and confidence, and to support them to implement effective practices with fidelity. In

competence and confidence, and to support them to implement effective practices with fidelity. In PBC, we specifically identify fidelity of practice implementation as the desired coaching outcome. A focus on enhancing knowledge, skills, or practices is evident across the definitions and frameworks. In PBC, the focus is on coachees’ acquisition, fluency, maintenance, and generalization of practices. We define a practice as an observable or measurable action or behavior of a coachee. PBC guides practice implementation and supports contextual adaptation while ensur-

coachee. PBC guides practice implementation and supports contextual adaptation while ensuring practice integrity (Cusumano & Preston, 2018). Components of coaching differ somewhat across the definitions and frameworks. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)/National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies (NACCRRA) definition only specifies a goal-setting component. Cusumano and Preston (2018) identify seven components in their coaching profile. In PBC, instructional coaching, and early childhood coaching, common components include setting goals, action planning, observation, and reflection. Feedback is included as a component in early childhood coaching, Cusumano and Preston’s coaching profile, and PBC. PBC distinguishes supportive and constructive feedback. PBC includes practice-focused strengths and

guishes supportive and constructive feedback. PBC includes practice-focused strengths and needs assessment as part of goal setting and action planning, which is a distinct component. As shown in Table 1.1, face-to-face interactions between the coach and coachee are recognized as a delivery method. In addition, NAEYC/NACCRRA and PBC include distance- or technology-based or hybrid delivery methods (e.g., live observations, distance reflection and feedback meetings). The duration of coaching is noted to range from one session to a series of sessions, depending on the number of practices and the coachees’ stage of change or fidelity of

sessions, depending on the number of practices and the coachees’ stage of change or fidelity of practice implementation. Consensus and converging evidence suggest that coaching should include planning, observation, action, reflection, feedback, and alliance building or collaborative partnerships (Kraft et al., 2018; Kunemund et al., 2021; Snyder et al., 2015). PBC includes each of these components as part: goal setting and action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback. In PBC, these components occur in the context of a collaborative partnership and are

PBC Theoretical Influences

tual roots in a partnership approach (Knight, 1999, 2007). Cusumano and Preston’s Practice

PBC Theoretical Influences • Principles from the science of human behavior • Organizational behavior management principles

guided by practice-focused strengths and needs assessments.

Theoretical Foundations of Practice-Based Coaching The coaching definitions and frameworks shown in Table 1.1 have been influenced by other models or frameworks. For example, Rush and Shelden (2020) used the contextual model for coaching described by Stober and Grant (2006a) to inform the coaching processes used in their early childhood coaching framework. Knight’s instructional coaching model has its concep-

• Organizational behavior management principles and practices • Implementation science and implementation

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Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox human behavior and OBM (Seniuk et al., 2013) and how coaching is described as a competency driver in active implementation science frameworks (Cusumano & Preston, 2018; Fixsen

tency driver in active implementation science frameworks (Cusumano & Preston, 2018; Fixsen & Blase, 2008). Science of Human Behavior, Organizational Behavior Management, and Behavioral Coaching Influences These PBC theoretical influences focus on applying principles from the science of human behavior to human performance. In PBC, performance is related to both fidelity of coaching implementation and fidelity of practice implementation in job-embedded early childhood contexts (“organizations”), such as classrooms or homes. Applying OBM principles to PBC, Snyder et al. (2012) described four major functions of coaching: provide support, analyze

PBC, Snyder et al. (2012) described four major functions of coaching: provide support, analyze application, offer feedback, and adapt results. Using principles from the science of human behavior, Seniuk et al. (2013) identified six characteristics of effective behavioral coaching initially developed by Martin and Hrycaiko (1983). These characteristics were based on dimensions from the science of human behavior initially described by Baer et al. (1968). Table 1.2 shows these characteristics and how they have been applied in PBC for both coaches and coachees. Many structural and process features of

initially described by Baer et al. (1968). Table 1.2 shows these characteristics and how they have been applied in PBC for both coaches and coachees. Many structural and process features of PBC are based on these six characteristics. PBC has an explicit focus on coachees’ actions or behaviors and emphasizes repeated, jobembedded learning opportunities to prompt, practice, reflect on, and receive feedback about implementation, which is supported by OBM principles (Crow & Snyder, 1998). PBC acknowledges that adult learners are both autonomous and collaborative. A collaborative partnership provides opportunities for those being coached to implement practices independently and with the support of a coach. When coachees are implementing newly learned actions or behaviors, having a collaborative partnership with a coach who provides effective prompts and explicit feedback about practice implementation helps shape successive approximations toward fidelity of practice implementation. In addition to helping support fidelity of practice implementation, the provision of implementation supports and resources has been identified by coachees as an important motivator for practice implementation and for building and sustaining a collaborative coaching partnership (Shannon et al., 2015; Shannon, Snyder, et al., 2021). Strengths and needs assessments are important for gathering data about learners’ current practices and determining

coaching partnership (Shannon et al., 2015; Shannon, Snyder, et al., 2021). Strengths and needs assessments are important for gathering data about learners’ current practices and determining priorities and motivations for enhancement, refinement, or change (Snyder & Wolfe, 2008). Consistent with principles from OBM and behavioral coaching, setting performance-based practice goals supports data-informed decision making and accountability. Goals based on individual priorities, strengths, and needs are important when coaching for behavior change. Action plans are accountability plans tailored to the coachees’ priorities and their stage and pace of practice learning. Chapter 6 details how to write SMA2R2T (specific, measurable, action-oriented/ achievable, realistic/relevant, and time sensitive) goals and action plans. Focused observation likely helps motivate the practitioner to use a practice or practices (Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Chapter 7 describes how to conduct observations focused on fidelity of practice implementation. With respect to reflection, asking open-ended questions and providing reflective comments are strategies that can eventually lead to self-reflection, autonomy, and self-efficacy (Frates et al., 2011). The provision of feedback based on implementation (also known as performance-based feedback) has been demonstrated to support fidelity of implementation of effective practices (Barton et al., 2011; Fallon et al., 2015). Practitioners have also reported that they find performance feedback to be useful and acceptable (Shannon et al., 2015; Shannon, Snyder, et al.,

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Overview of PBC

Overview of PBC

contexts (Kelly & Perkins, 2014). Implementation research focuses on the scientific study of methods to promote the systematic uptake of evidence-based practices into routine practice (Eccles et al., 2009). In their literature synthesis focused on implementation research, Fixsen and colleagues (2005) identified coaching as a core component or driver of successful implementation of evidence-based practices and programs. Along with staff selection and training (i.e., professional development), coaching is depicted in the active implementation science drivers

focus of PBC are gathered from coaches of PBC are gathered from coachees to examine to examine feasibility, acceptability, utility, feasibility, acceptability, utility, response-costs, response-costs, and satisfaction. and satisfaction.

Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

Adaptive Technical

and implementation.

PBC is theoretically and operationally aligned with coaching as depicted in the Fixsen and Blase framework and with the Practice Profile for Coaching (Cusumano & Preston, 2018), which was developed as part of the State Implementation and Scale-Up of Evidence-Based Practices Center. Coaching is defined in the Practice Profile as a process that supports and transfers skills acquired during professional development to use in practice contexts. Coaching shapes newly learned skills with a focus on improving precision, fluency, and use of practices across settings, recipients, and time, while maintaining fidelity of practice implementation. According to Cusumano and Preston, coaching should be informed by data that documents fidelity of coaching implementation, fidelity of practice implementation, the intensity of coaching support, and outcomes. Essential components of coaching, which are also reflected in PBC, are prompting for practice implementation and for reflection and feedback, the provision of performance feedback, creating an enabling and collaborative context, data use, application of content knowledge, continuum of supports for coaches and coachees, and scaffolding for practice learning

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Overview of PBC

IMPLEMENTATION COACHEE KNOWLEDGE, CHILD/FAMILY SUPPORTS DISPOSITIONS, & SKILLS OUTCOMES

Coachee applies knowledge and dispositions when implementing effective practices.

Coachee implements Children or families Practice-Based effective practices with achieve desired Coaching fidelity in practice context. outcomes.

Other Practice Implementation Supports

Figure 1.3. Abbreviated theory of change for practice-based coaching.

desired child developmental and learning or family outcomes. This theory of change has been used to guide research on PBC and its use in training and technical assistance contexts (e.g., Conroy et al., 2015; Hemmeter et al., 2016; Hemmeter et al., 2020; Snyder, Hemmeter et al., 2018; Sutherland et al., 2018).

Empirical Foundation for Structural, Content, and Process Features of Practice-Based Coaching

Literature reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses have identified key structural, con- tent, and process features of coaching that support fidelity of practice or intervention imple- mentation (Artman-Meeker et al., 2015; Kraft et al., 2018; Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010; Lloyd & Modlin, 2012; Powell & Diamond, 2013; Snyder et al. 2012). These features align with those iden- tified for professional development when the desired outcome is fidelity of coachees’ practice implementation in job-embedded contexts and associated positive outcomes for children or their families (e.g., Zaslow et al., 2010). A description of these structural, content, and process features and their relation to PBC follows. Coaching should be coherent and sustained versus episodic. It should be job-embedded, and it should focus on a set of high-leverage (Ball & Forzani, 2011) effective practices relevant for the coachees’ practice context. Multiple exemplars of the practices should be available through both modeling and video modeling. Contextual fit, defined as the alignment between the practices that are the focus of coaching and their relevance for the coachees’ practice context,

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Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

10 Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox particularly alignment with curricula or practices already being used, should be explicitly emphasized. Embedded opportunities for practice implementation with reflection and feedback are essential. Explicit linkages between practice implementation and child learning outcomes should be emphasized. Strategies used by coaches should be defined, and the use of these strategies during coaching should be documented. Coaches should receive professional development

to ensure fidelity of coaching and practice implementation (Snyder et al., 2015).

Key Features of PBC

Key Features of PBC • Coherent and sustained

• Coherent and sustained • Job-embedded

• Job-embedded • Focused on high-leverage and effective practices • Multiple examples of the practices that are the content focus of PBC through modeling and video

content focus of PBC through modeling and video modeling • Emphasis on contextual fit between the practices that are the focus of PBC and the coachees’

that are the focus of PBC and the coachees’ practice context • Embedded opportunities for practice

• Reflection and feedback about practice implementation

implementation • Use of effective coaching strategies • Collaborative partnerships between coach and

• Collaborative partnerships between coach and coachee • Documentation of coaching dose, dose formats,

• Documentation of coaching dose, dose formats, and coaching strategies • Coaches receive professional development to

should be emphasized. Strategies used by coaches should be defined, and the use of these strategies during coaching should be documented. Coaches should receive professional development to ensure fidelity of coaching and practice implementation (Snyder et al., 2015). In their meta-analysis of coaching, Kraft et al. (2018) reported findings from 60 studies, 31 of which were conducted in early childhood contexts. These authors identified essential features of coaching, which were used to Focused on high-leverage and effective practices frame their meta-analysis: (a) individualized, coaching sessions are one-on-one; (b) time intensive, coaches and coachees interact at content focus of PBC through modeling and video least every few weeks; (c) sustained, coachees receive coaching over a semester or year(s); Emphasis on contextual fit between the practices (d) context specific, coaching occurs in jobembedded contexts; and (e) focused, coaches work with coachees to engage in implementation of specific evidence-based practices.

tation of specific evidence-based practices. These features align with those of PBC. Kraft et al. (2018) found that coaching in 91% of the 60 studies was combined with other forms of professional development, including workshops, professional learning communities, or training events designed to support teachers’ knowledge, dispositions, and skill development. Specific to early childhood, Snyder et al. (2012) analyzed 256 studies as part of a descriptive systemensure fidelity of PBC and practice implementation atic review focused on early childhood professional development. These authors found

studies conducted to date with PBC provide teachers with these types of materials or practice implementation aides (see Table 1.3). Fourteen of the studies supplemented coaching with a video library that teachers could

ensure fidelity of PBC and practice implementation atic review focused on early childhood professional development. These authors found coaching with performance feedback was provided in follow-up to other forms of professional development in 51.6% of the reviewed studies. Schachter (2015) conducted an analytic study of professional development research in early childhood education and found that 54.8% (40 of 73) of the studies reviewed included

early childhood education and found that 54.8% (40 of 73) of the studies reviewed included coaching as well as other forms of professional development. Exploratory analyses from the Kraft et al. (2018) meta-analysis examined select features of coaching structures and processes. Studies that paired coaching with other forms of professional development (e.g., group training) had larger effects on teacher instructional practices. The authors suggested coachees might benefit from professional development designed to build their knowledge and application skills before they engage in coaching. As shown in Table 1.3, in the studies conducted to date that have used PBC, other forms of professional development, in

Fourteen of the studies supplemented coaching with a video library that teachers could access to observe other teachers implementing the practices that were the focus of coaching.

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defiant behavior;

(continued)

in one state Head Start dren at and staterisk for funded preschool classrooms in 2 states Early child dren at hood risk for classrooms across 5 school dis tricts and 3 Head Start agencies Early child hood classrooms across 5 school dis tricts and 3 Head Start agencies

Snyder_CH01.indd 12

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Table 1.3. (continued)

Half-day pre-K 10 literacy Literacy 3D Six 2-hr On-site 3 coaching NR NR work-(Individual) cycles for shops school (12 hr) year, 19–20 hr total

Three On-site M = 13.4 3 coaches af-M = 87.4% (7–17) filiated with (range

6.5-hr (Individual) sessions research 45%– work- per teacher project, 100%) shops over 6 mo trained (19.5 hr) Mo = 105-min by study observa-authors and tion (range followed 30–305 written PBC min) coaching Md = 44-min protocol debrief (range 10–135)

Hemmeter 92 teachers 995 chil-Public Pyramid Pyramid Three On-site M = 16.5 11 coaches af-M = 97.7% et al. (45 exp, dren, preschool Model Model

6.5-hr (Individual) (16–17) filiated with (range (2021) 47 con) classrooms practices work- work- coaching research 40%– focal shops, shops sessions project, 100%) children PBC, (19.5 hr) per trained at risk guides teacher by study for SE and mate- over 6 mo authors and and be-rials Mo = 91.3-followed min ob-written PBC havior BAU PD servation coaching delays (SD = 25.1) protocol Md = 33.3 debrief (SD = 12.7)

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McCollum 13 teachers NR (4-yr-State-funded Emergent Workshops, Biweekly, 4 research-NR Differences in NR et al. (7 exp, 6 old chil-preschool literacy PBC, 15 total ers, 3 with implementa- (2011) con) dren) programs prac-guides sessions doctorates tion of literacy tices (18 and mate- (5 per in EC, 2 strategies for strategies rials each of 3 worked as Cluster B and C organized Waitlist literacy emergent practices under control strategy literacy Differences A, B, C clusters) coaches in on ELLCO clusters) a previous language project, and literacy trained on environment observation scores, includ- checklists ing LEC, LLC, and LARS

Greenwood 20 teachers 297 chil- et al. (10 exp, dren programs, practices workshop, (2017) 10 con) reverse PBC inclusion Wait list control (received PD Year 2)

Hemmeter 40 teachers 494 chil-Public Pyramid Pyramid et al. (20 exp, dren, preschool Model Model (2016) 18 con) classrooms practices work- focal shops, children PBC, at risk guides for SE and and be-materials havior BAU PD delays

Orienta-On-site (Indi- tion vidual) group meeting (2 d, 10 hr), 3 ad- ditional group meet-ings (1.5 hr each), bi- weekly (14.5 hr total) Four On-site (Indi- ~3.5-hr vidual) work-Web-based shops (14.9 hr (Individual) total) for on- site and self- coach- ing condi- tions

16 weekly 4 external M = 95% coaching coaches (range ses-in on-site 78%– condition 100%) teacher trained M = 99% over 4–5 by senior (range mo authors and 97%– Mo = 73.9-min followed 100%) observa-written PBC tion (SD = protocol

19.5 min) Project Md = staff who

39.3-min delivered debrief self-coach- (SD = 12.1 ing prompts min) trained 16 weekly by senior e-mail authors and reminders followed to self-written PBC coach protocol

Literacy practice No significant implementa-effects on child tion increased literacy out- Quality of literacy comes, but cor- implementa-relation ( r = .79) tion increased between teacher literacy focus and child literacy engagement Differences in Children (all Pyramid Model children and teachers’ prac-focal children) in tice implemen-Pyramid Model tation relative classrooms to BAU PD had higher as measured social skills and by Teaching less problem Pyramid Ob-behavior than servation Tool children in BAU (TPOT) classrooms Focal children in Pyramid Model classrooms had more social interactions than children in BAU classrooms Differences in Nonfocal and Pyramid Model focal children teachers’ prac-had higher tice implemen-social skills and tation relative less problem to BAU PD as behavior measured by Focal children TPOT had higher social skills and less problem behavior Focal children had more social interactions

Snyder, 36 teachers 106 Public school Embedded Workshops, Hem -(12 exp1, children preschool instruc-on-site meter, 12 exp2, with dis-classrooms tion for coaching, et al. 12 con) abilities in 3 states early practice (2018) learning guides, materials, web site Workshops, self- coaching, practice guides, materials, web site BAU PD

Higher quality Children whose embedded in-teachers in struction learn-on-site coaching ing targets for acquired more on-site and skills and behav- self-coaching iors specified relative to BAU in embedded as measured instruction learn- by Learning ing targets than Targets Rating children whose Scale (LTRS; teachers in self- Snyder et al., coaching or BAU

2009). Children whose More accurate teachers in implementa-on-site and self- tion of embed-coaching showed ded instruction noteworthy learning trials improvements for on-site on standard- relative to ized assess- self-coaching ments of early and BAU as literacy, receptive measured by language, pre- the Embedded academic and Instruction social skills com- Observation pared to children System (EIOS; whose teachers Snyder et al., in BAU

2009. self-coaching sions per

$$ M_{\circ}=105{\sf{m i n}} $$

Table 1.3. (continued)

Group experimental design studies ( N = 10)

N N Practice Practice Experimental PBC delivery Coach training PBC coach Study practitioners children context focus conditions PD dose format PBC dose and protocol fidelity Half-day pre-K 10 literacy Literacy 3D Six 2-hr Greenwood 20 teachers 297 chil- On-site 3 coaching NR NR et al. (10 exp, dren programs, practices workshop, work-(Individual) cycles for (2017) 10 con) reverse PBC shops school inclusion Wait list (12 hr) year, control 19–20 hr (received total PD Year 2)

Hemmeter 40 teachers 494 chil-Public Pyramid Pyramid Three On-site M = 13.4 3 coaches af-M = 87.4% (7–17) filiated with (range et al. (20 exp, dren, preschool Model Model 6.5-hr (Individual) sessions research 45%– (2016) 18 con) 104 classrooms practices work-work- per teacher project, 100%) focal shops, shops over 6 mo trained children PBC, (19.5 hr) Mo = 105-min by study at risk guides observa-authors and for SE and tion (range followed and be- materials 30–305 written PBC havior BAU PD min) coaching delays Md = 44-min protocol debrief (range 10–135)

Pyramid Pyramid Three On-site M = 16.5 11 coaches af-M = 97.7% Model Model 6.5-hr (Individual) (16–17) filiated with (range practices work-work- coaching research 40%– shops, shops sessions project, 100%) PBC, (19.5 hr) per trained guides teacher by study and mate- over 6 mo authors and rials Mo = 91.3-followed min ob-written PBC BAU PD servation coaching (SD = 25.1) protocol Md = 33.3 debrief (SD = 12.7)

Snyder_CH01.indd 13

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Table 1.3. (continued)

Biweekly, 4 research-NR Differences in NR McCollum 13 teachers NR (4-yr-State-funded 15 total ers, 3 with implementa- et al. (7 exp, 6 old chil-preschool (2011) con) dren) programs sessions doctorates tion of literacy (5 per in EC, 2 strategies for each of 3 worked as Cluster B and C literacy emergent practices strategy literacy Differences clusters) coaches in on ELLCO a previous language project, and literacy trained on environment observation scores, includ- checklists ing LEC, LLC, and LARS

Hemmeter 92 teachers 995 chil-Public et al. (45 exp, dren, preschool (2021) 47 con) 250 classrooms focal children at risk for SE and be- havior delays

Emergent Workshops, Orienta-On-site (Indi- literacy PBC, tion vidual) prac-guides group tices (18 and mate-meeting strategies rials (2 d, organized Waitlist 10 hr), under control 3 ad- A, B, C ditional clusters) group meet-ings (1.5 hr each), bi- weekly (14.5 hr total) Workshops, Four On-site (Indi- instruc-on-site ~3.5-hr vidual) tion for coaching, work-Web-based early practice shops learning guides, (14.9 hr (Individual) materials, total) web site for on- Workshops, site and self-self- coaching, coach- practice ing guides, condi- materials, tions web site BAU PD

19.5 min) Project Md = staff who

Practitioner outcomes Child outcomes Literacy practice No significant implementa-effects on child tion increased literacy out- Quality of literacy comes, but cor- implementa-relation ( r = .79) tion increased between teacher literacy focus and child literacy engagement Differences in Children (all Pyramid Model children and teachers’ prac-focal children) in tice implemen-Pyramid Model tation relative classrooms to BAU PD had higher as measured social skills and by Teaching less problem Pyramid Ob-behavior than servation Tool children in BAU (TPOT) classrooms Focal children in Pyramid Model classrooms had more social interactions than children in BAU classrooms Differences in Nonfocal and Pyramid Model focal children teachers’ prac-had higher tice implemen-social skills and tation relative less problem to BAU PD as behavior measured by Focal children TPOT had higher social skills and less problem behavior Focal children had more social interactions

Snyder, 36 teachers 106 Hem -(12 exp1, children preschool meter, 12 exp2, with dis-classrooms et al. 12 con) abilities in 3 states (2018)

29/09/2021 2:04 AM

2009. (continued)

Mary Louise Hemmeter, Ph.D., & Lise K. Fox, Ph.D. ©2022 Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

Public school Embedded

self-coaching sions per

Excerpted from The Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching: Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood by Patricia Snyder, Ph.D.,

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Table 1.3. (continued)

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(continued)

child care 3 children Universityat risk based early care and learning education center Inclusive pub lic school classrooms

Key: BAU, business as usual; BIC, BEST in CLASS; BSP, behavior-specific praise; con, control, comparison or BAU condition; CF, corrective feedback; d, day; mo, month; yr, year; EBD, emotional and behavioral disorders; ELLCO, Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation Tool (ELLCO-PreK; Smith et al., 2008); exp1, experimental condition 1; exp2, experimental condition 2; IF, instructive feedback; N/A, not applicable for study; (SD), mean intensity and standard deviation of focused observation; NR, not reported; OTR, opportunities to respond; PBC, practice-based coaching; PC, precorrection; PD, professional development;

Table 1.3. (continued)

Single-Case Experimental Design Studies ( PD One E-mail (Indi 30-min training participants One 30- to Live or e-mail 3× per wk 60-min training, our practices, guides, replicated One 30- to 60-min booster training due to 2-wk break NA On site (Indi strategies replicated Key: BAU, business as usual; BIC, BEST in CLASS; BSP, behavior-specific praise; con, control, comparison or BAU condition; CF, corrective feedback; d, day; mo, month; yr, year; EBD, emotional and behavioral disorders; ELLCO, Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation Tool (ELLCO-PreK; Smith et al., 2008); exp1, experimental condition 1; exp2, experimental condition 2; IF, instructive feedback; N/A, not applicable for study; exp, experimental condition; LAR, Learning Activities Rating Scale; LEC, Literacy Environment Checklist; LLC, language, literacy, and curriculum; (SD), mean intensity and standard deviation of focused observation; NR, not reported; OTR, opportunities to respond; PBC, practice-based coaching; PC, precorrection; PD, professional development; SE, social-emotional; practice focus, practices that were the content focus of PD and PBC; TPOT; Teaching Pyramid Observation Tool (Hemmeter et al., 2014). Excerpted from The Essentials of Practice-Based Coaching: Supporting Effective Practices in Early Childhood by Patricia Snyder, Ph.D.,

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Overview of PBC Although the sample size was limited to 14 studies, less robust effects were shown in these studies. What is not reported by Kraft et al. (2018) is the extent to which teachers accessed or were

ies. What is not reported by Kraft et al. (2018) is the extent to which teachers accessed or were shown the available video models during coaching. No differences were found for coaching delivered face-to-face or virtually, although the number of virtual coaching studies was 13, compared to 47 conducted face-to-face. Table 1.3 shows the delivery format for PBC studies conducted to date. Chapter 2 describes different PBC delivery formats and Chapter 10 describes how to use technology supports for delivering PBC

shows the delivery format for PBC studies conducted to date. Chapter 2 describes different PBC delivery formats and Chapter 10 describes how to use technology supports for delivering PBC virtually or in a hybrid format. Dose of coaching was somewhat difficult to quantify based on information reported in the studies. In the 44 studies that reported dose, 16 reported dosages of 10 hr or less, 14 reported 21 hr or more, 6 reported 21–30 hr, and 8 reported 30 hr or more. Kraft et al. did not find any evidence to support that coaching had to be delivered at a higher dose to be effective. This finding should be interpreted with caution, however, given information about dose and particularly dose formats (e.g., dose and type of observation, dose and type of feedback or reflection) often are not reported in the literature. As Kraft et al. noted, “The lack of evidence supporting dosage effects suggests that the quality and focus of coaching may be more important than the actual number of contact hours” (p. 565). In addition, the dose and dose formats of coaching needed to support fidelity of practice implementation are also likely affected by motivational and learning characteristics of coachees and coaches, the number and type of practices that are the focus of coaching, coachees’ current practice knowledge and skills, the collaborative partnership, and contextual factors that facilitate or hinder practice implementation (Snyder et al., 2015). In Chapter 9, we provide resources for coaching implementation that includes coaching

nership, and contextual factors that facilitate or hinder practice implementation (Snyder et al., 2015). In Chapter 9, we provide resources for coaching implementation that includes coaching logs to record dose, dose formats, and other PBC content and process features. In addition to the key coaching features described by Kraft et al. (2018), Lloyd and Modlin (2012) emphasized the importance of building partnerships with coachees; observing, modeling, and advising in the practice context; discussing practices; providing support and feedback; assisting with problem-solving challenges; and reviewing and documenting progress toward identified practice goals. As these authors noted, “. . . [coachees] are more likely to follow through and consistently apply the skills they have learned when they have continued support [partnerships]” (p. 3). Collaborative partnerships are an important part of PBC, and strategies

through and consistently apply the skills they have learned when they have continued support [partnerships]” (p. 3). Collaborative partnerships are an important part of PBC, and strategies for building and maintaining these partnerships are described in Chapter 3. In their 2012 descriptive systematic review of early childhood professional development studies published between 1970 and 2011, Snyder et al. examined which coaching strategies (e.g., performance feedback, goal setting, modeling) were used in the 159 studies that included follow-up support (including coaching) as part of professional development. Although Snyder et al. reported the number and type of follow-up strategies used in these studies, they did not analyze whether these strategies were used separately or in combination, or whether use of particular strategies or combinations of strategies were differentially effective in supporting

analyze whether these strategies were used separately or in combination, or whether use of particular strategies or combinations of strategies were differentially effective in supporting fidelity of practice implementation. Artman-Meeker et al. (2015) reviewed 49 studies that focused on coaching early childhood professionals to implement intervention practices in job-embedded settings. In addition to examining the characteristics of learners and coaches, preparation and supports offered to coaches, and the rigor and quality of the studies, these authors identified coaching strategies used in the reviewed studies from a list of 12 strategies. The most commonly used strategies, occurring in 30% or more of the reviewed studies, were performance feedback (85.7%), intentional planning for practice between sessions (55.1%), use of a coaching manual (53.1%), collaborative progress monitoring (38.8%), ongoing use of an action plan (32.7%), and practice of new skills (30.6%). Less frequently used strategies were live modeling (26.5%), help with instructional materials (20.4%), video models (16.3%), video self-reflection (14.3%), intentional focus on relationships (12.2%), and role play (4.1%). Of note, only 2 of 49 studies included in the review described a comprehensive coaching model like PBC with a focus on partnerships, goal set-

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Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

18 Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox childhood setting. More than half of the studies included four of these five features but did not describe an emphasis on the collaborative partnership, which is an essential component of PBC. Less than one third of the studies reported providing training or follow-up support to coaches on the effective practices that were the focus of coaching. This is a key feature of PBC, which emphasizes the importance of professional development for coaches, including ongoing support for fidelity, on both PBC and the practices that are the focus of PBC. Chapter 9 details

support for fidelity, on both PBC and the practices that are the focus of PBC. Chapter 9 details essential supports for coaches. Findings from Snyder et al. (2012) and Artman-Meeker et al. (2015) about coaching strategies were used to inform the identification of and operational definitions for the coaching strategies included in the PBC framework. Subsequent empirical studies conducted using PBC (see Table 1.3), which have examined further the use of these strategies, have resulted in the identification of essential and enhancement coaching strategies. Both classes of strategies are defined and illustrated in detail in Chapter 4. In addition, Chapter 5 defines what is meant by a practice and provides resources for conducting practice-focused strengths and needs assessments. Chapter 9 describes supports for PBC implementation, including coaching logs that list essential and enhancement coaching strategies. Chapter 10 provides information about how technology can be used to support PBC implementation and how essential and enhancement

coaching strategies can be included.

Empirical Support for Practice-Based Coaching As shown in Table 1.3, there is growing empirical support for PBC and its promise for improving coachees’ implementation of evidence-based practices and child outcomes. Both group experimental (N = 10) and single-case design experimental studies (N = 6) have been conducted. Across these 16 studies, 605 practitioners were included. For the 12 studies that examined both

Across these 16 studies, 605 practitioners were included. For the 12 studies that examined both practitioner and child outcomes, 2,895 children were included. As shown in Table 1.3, the practice focus for PBC in the 16 studies was social-emotional practices, including the Pyramid Model (e.g., Hemmeter et al., 2016); targeted social, emotional, and behavioral teaching practices for young children at elevated risk for emotional and behavioral disabilities (BEST in CLASS; e.g., Conroy et al., 2015); early literacy practices (e.g., Greenwood et al., 2017; Hsieh et al., 2009); and embedded instruction (e.g., Snyder et al., 2018). To date, practice contexts have included Head Start, state-funded pre-Kindergarten programs, preschool classrooms in public schools serving children with disabilities, and early care and education settings. The use of practice-based coaching is currently being examined in early intervention programs serving infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families

et al., 2011) to 19.5 hr in a study focused on supporting teachers’ implementation of Pyramid Model practices (Hemmeter et al., 2016; Hemmeter et al., 2020). PBC was primarily provided face-to-face, although two studies examined the effects of distance coaching via e-mail on providers’ implementation of Pyramid Model practices (Artman Meeker & Hemmeter, 2012; Artman-Meeker et al., 2014), and three studies examined effects

care and education settings. The use of practice-based coaching is currently being examined in early intervention programs serving infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families (e.g., Bigelow et al., 2020; Woods et al., 2018). In all but one study shown in Table 1.3, knowledge-, dispositional-, or skill-building forms of professional development (e.g., workshop series, brief trainings, online video exemplars, case stories, web-based modules, implementation guides, materials) were provided to coachees in addition to PBC. PBC was provided as follow-up support for fidelity of practice implementation in the coachees’ job-embedded context. This approach is consistent with evidence that shows knowledge- dispositional-, and skills-building forms of professional development are necessary, but not sufficient, for supporting practice implementation in job-embedded contexts (Joyce & Showers, 2002; Kraft et al., 2018). The dose of the professional development varied as a function of the number of practices and ranged from one 30-min training in a study focused on supporting teachers’ implementation of a single practice (i.e., descriptive praise; Hemmeter et al., 2011) to 19.5 hr in a study focused on supporting teachers’ implementation of Pyramid

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Overview of PBC Snyder, Hemmeter, Algina et al., 2020). Those providing coaching were a) study authors with expertise in both PBC and the practices that were the focus of coaching, b) study personnel who were experienced providers of professional development or technical assistance and received additional training and support to reach and maintain fidelity in PBC implementation and the practices, or c) graduate students or research assistants who received training and ongoing support to reach and maintain fidelity in PBC implementation and the practices. Dose of coaching in the group experimental design studies ranged from 6 to 16.5 coaching sessions with variability in the duration and length of sessions. In the single-case experimental design studies, dose var-

the group experimental design studies ranged from 6 to 16.5 coaching sessions with variability in the duration and length of sessions. In the single-case experimental design studies, dose varied as a function of the number and type of practices and the delivery format for the coaching. Improved reporting about coaching dose and dose formats is needed in both research and practice (Kraft, 2018). As Artman et al. (2015) noted, these data are important to increase understanding and decision making, both in research and in practice, about what dose (intensity, frequency, duration) and dose formats (e.g., expert/peer/self/group; on site/distance/hybrid) are needed for which coachees and under what conditions (e.g., PBC to support implementation

frequency, duration) and dose formats (e.g., expert/peer/self/group; on site/distance/hybrid) are needed for which coachees and under what conditions (e.g., PBC to support implementation of six instructional practices versus a comprehensive framework such as the Pyramid Model). Research to date has illuminated the importance of preparing coaches to implement PBC and to ensure they have knowledge and skills in the practices that are the content focus of coaching. In addition, coaches need ongoing professional development to maintain fidelity of PBC implementation, including opportunities to discuss coaching successes and challenges with other coaches, to have focused observations of their coaching implementation, and to reflect and receive feedback about coaching implementation. Professional development supports provided to coaches should mirror the components of the PBC provided to coachees (i.e., coaching strengths and needs assessment, coaching goal setting and action planning, focused observation of coaching, reflection and feedback about coaching implementation). The professional development supports should be provided in the context of a collaborative partnership with other coaches, including lead coaches who are internal or might be external to the program as part of technical assistance or professional development systems at programmatic,

program as part of technical assistance or professional development systems at programmatic, local, regional, state, or national levels. In 11 of 16 studies, data were reported about the fidelity with which PBC was implemented. Fidelity data often were obtained from coaching protocols, including coaching logs and action plans. Data on the fidelity of PBC implementation are important to enable data-informed decision making about relationships among coaching structures, content, and processes (i.e., coaching efforts); practice implementation; and desired outcomes (i.e., coaching effects) as shown in

SUMMARY In this chapter, we have provided background about PBC and its common and distinct features. The theoretical foundations for PBC, including how PBC relates to coaching as a competency driver in the active implementation science frameworks, and an abbreviated theory of

SUMMARY

ing efforts); practice implementation; and desired outcomes (i.e., coaching effects) as shown in Figure 1.3. The group experimental design studies show increases in practitioners’ fidelity of practice implementation relative to those who did not receive professional development and PBC. The data reported in these studies represent average practice implementation for participants based on the experimental condition to which they were assigned. For the single-case design studies, all practitioners showed increases in their fidelity of practice implementation relative to their baseline implementation of practices. Seven of the 10 group experimental design studies examined child outcomes. On average, children in practitioners’ classrooms who received professional development and PBC had better development and learning outcomes relative to children in practitioners’ classrooms who did not receive professional development and PBC. More detailed information about each of the studies shown in Table 1.3 can be found in the original

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Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox

20 Snyder, Hemmeter, and Fox content, and process features of PBC have been described along with a summary of the existing empirical evidence for PBC. Chapter 2 provides additional information about PBC, including an overview of professional development, PBC in the context of professional development, PBC components, and PBC delivery formats and modalities. Three case stories are introduced at the end of Chapter 2 that will be used throughout the remaining chapters. Following Chapter 2, each chapter provides detailed information about the structural and process features of PBC. Supplemental materials and resources to support implementation of PBC are included in these chapters, and the case stories are used to illustrate how these materials and resources are used. Our goal is to provide readers with essential information, materials, and resources to