# LITERACY FOUNDATIONS FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS

## Edited by
**Elsa Cárdenas-Hagan, Ed.D., CCC-SLP, CDT, CALT, QI**  
Valley Speech Language and Learning Center

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### Excerpted from
**Literacy Foundations for English Learners: A Comprehensive Guide to Evidence-Based Instruction**  
by Elsa Cárdenas-Hagan, Ed.D., CCC-SLP

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## Contents

### I Introduction to English Learners, Language, and Literacy
1. Teaching Literacy Skills to English Learners  
2. Language and Literacy Development  
3. Components of Literacy Instruction for English Learners

### II The Components of Literacy and English Learners
4. Phonological Awareness Development Among English Learners  
5. Phonics Development Among English Learners  
6. Reading Fluency Among English Learners  
7. Vocabulary Instruction Among English Learners  
8. Reading Comprehension Among English Learners  
9. Spelling Development Among English Learners  
10. Writing Development Among English Learners

## About the Contributors

- **Coleen D. Carlson, Ph.D.**  
  Associate Research Professor, University of Houston  
  Expertise in exploratory and randomized controlled trials.

- **Linda O. Cavazos, Ph.D.**  
  Senior Consultant, American Institutes for Research

- **Elaine Cheesman, Ph.D.**  
  Associate Professor Emerita, University of Colorado

- **Kenneth Nieser, M.A.**  
  Project Manager, University of Houston

- **Sharolyn D. Pollard-Durodola, Ed.D.**  
  Professor of English Language Learning, University of Nevada

- **Colleen K. Reutebuch, Ph.D.**  
  Senior Project Manager, The Meadows Center

- **Alessandra Rico, M.Ed.**  
  Bilingual Educator, Valley Speech Language and Learning Center

- **Eric Tridas, M.D.**  
  Director, Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics

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## Teaching Literacy Skills to English Learners
### By completing this chapter, the reader will:
- Learn about the profiles and demographics of English learners (ELs) in the United States.
- Understand the issues regarding the achievement gap between ELs and native English speakers.
- Reflect on the historical perspective of bilingual education in the United States.
- Learn how federal initiatives and the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) affect education for ELs.
- Examine other considerations for meeting the educational needs of ELs.

### Demographics and Profiles
ELs are a fast-growing population in schools, representing a diverse demographic:

| Language  | Percentage |
| ----------| ---------- |
| Spanish   | 77%       |
| Arabic    | 2.3%      |
| Chinese   | 2.2%      |
| Vietnamese| 1.8%      |
| Hmong     | 0.8%      |
| Somali    | 0.7%      |

According to McFarland et al. (2017), as of 2017, there were 4.9 million ELs attending public schools, representing 9.5% of the U.S. student population. ELs represent varied backgrounds, with Spanish-speaking ELs making up close to 80% of the second language learner population.

### Literacy and English Learners
ELs enter school with varying literacy skills. The challenges faced include:
- A 13% chance of not graduating from high school.
- Significant achievement gaps, particularly among Hispanic students in reading.
- Many ELs face difficulties in attaining grade-level proficiency.

### Federal Initiatives
**Bilingual Education Act**
- The Act initiated federal assistance for programs for students with limited English proficiency.

**No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)**
- NCLB introduced performance measures and annual assessments for English language learners.

**Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)**
- ESSA replaced NCLB, focusing on high standards while allowing states flexibility in meeting educational needs.

### Curriculum: The Common Core State Standards
The CCSS aim to provide clear objectives for educational achievement, preparing students for further education and careers.

### Program Models for English Learners
- **English as a Second Language (ESL)**
- **Structured English Immersion**
- **Transitional Bilingual Education**
- **Dual Language Programs**

These models address various needs and support the integration of ELs into mainstream education.

### Multi-Tiered Systems of Support
The MTSS framework includes a response to intervention (RTI) process, providing different tiers of support to ELs based on their needs.

### Conclusion
The book aims to equip educators with techniques and research-based practices to effectively instruct ELs and enhance their educational outcomes.